TELEVISION AND RADIO PRODUCTION -PRACTICAL

THIRD YEAR V SEMESTER

TELEVISION AND RADIO PRODUCTION -PRACTICAL

Duration of Examination: 3 hrs

Maximum Marks: 100

Credits: 3

Exercises:

1. Students should write original script for TV commercial, Documentary and Short film (Five each).
2. Students should write original script for a Radio Program and produce it.
3. Student should get trained in handling camera and shoot scene and shot. (five each)
4. Students should get hands on experience in both linear and non-linear editing and dubbing.
5. Shoot documentary – duration not to exceed 5 minutes.
6. AD film- three version (10 sec, 20 sec & 30 sec)
7. AD film- Using chromo key or blue matte.
8. Radio Program – Duration 10 minutes.
9. Radio AD – Duration 30 Sec.

VIDEOGRAPHY
(Camera Angels, Camera Shots, Camera Movements,
Lighting Terminology and Video Terminology)

CAMERA ANGELS

The relationship between the camera and the object being photographed (i.e. the ANGLE) gives emotional information to an audience, and guides their judgment about the character or object in shot. The more extreme the angle (i.e. the further away it is from eye left), the more symbolic and heavily-loaded the shot.

1. The Bird's-Eye view
This shows a scene from directly overhead, a very unnatural and strange angle. Familiar objects viewed from this angle might seem totally unrecognizable at first (umbrellas in a crowd, dancers' legs). This shot does, however, put the audience in a godlike position, looking down on the action. People can be made to look insignificant, ant-like, part of a wider scheme of things. Hitchcock (and his admirers, like Brian de Palma) is fond of this style of shot.
2. High Angle
Not so extreme as a bird's eye view. The camera is elevated above the action using a crane to give a general overview. High angles make the object photographed seem smaller, and less significant (or scary). The object or character often gets swallowed up by their setting - they become part of a wider picture.
3. Eye Level
A fairly neutral shot; the camera is positioned as though it is a human actually observing a scene, so that eg actors' heads are on a level with the focus. The camera will be placed approximately five to six feet from the ground.
4. Low Angle
These increase height (useful for short actors like Tom Cruise) and give a sense of speeded motion. Low angles help give a sense of confusion to a viewer, of powerlessness within the action of a scene. The background of a low angle shot will tend to be just sky or ceiling, the lack of detail about the setting adding to the disorientation of the viewer. The added height of the object may make it inspire fear and insecurity in the viewer, who is psychologically dominated by the figure on the screen.
5. Oblique/Canted Angle
Sometimes the camera is tilted (i.e. is not placed horizontal to floor level), to suggest imbalance, transition and instability (any Michael Bay movie). This technique is used to suggest POINT-OF-View shots (i.e. when the camera becomes the 'eyes' of one particular character, seeing what they see - a hand held camera is often used for this).

SHOT TYPES

There is a convention in the video, film and television industries which assigns names and guidelines to common types of shots, framing and picture composition. The list below briefly describes the most common shot types. Note that the exact terminology may vary between production environments but the basic principles are the same.

EWS (Extreme Wide Shot)	VWS (Very Wide Shot)	WS (Wide Shot)
The view is so far from the subject that she isn't even visible. This is often used as an establishing shot.	The subject is visible (barely), but the emphasis is still on placing her in her environment.	The subject takes up the full frame, or at least as much as possible. The same as a long shot.
MS (Mid Shot)	MCU (Medium Close Up)	CU (Close Up)
Shows some part of the subject in more detail whilst still giving an impression of the whole subject.	Half way between a MS and a CU.	A certain feature or part of the subject takes up the whole frame.
ECU (Extreme Close Up)	CA (Cutaway)	Cut-In
The ECU gets right in and shows extreme detail.	A shot of something other than the current action.	Shows some part of the subject in detail.
Two-Shot	(OSS) Over-the-Shoulder Shot	Noddy Shot
A comfortable shot of two people, framed similarly to a mid shot.	Looking from behind a person at the subject.	Usually refers to a shot of the interviewer listening and reacting to the subject, although noddies can be used in drama and other situations.
Point-of-View Shot (POV)	Weather Shot
Shows a view from the subject's perspective.	The subject is the weather, usually the sky. Can be used for other purposes.

Extreme Wide Shot (EWS)

In the extreme wide shot, the view is so far from the subject that she isn't even visible. The point of this shot is to show the subject's surroundings.
The EWS is often used as an "establishing shot" - the first shot of a new scene, designed to show the audience where the action is taking place.
The EWS is also known as an extra long shot or extreme long show (acronym XLS).
Very Wide Shot (VWS)
The very wide shot is much closer to the subject than an extreme wide shot, but still much further away than a wide shot. The subject is (just) visible here, but the emphasis is very much on placing her in her environment.
This often works as an establishing shot, in which the audience is shown the whole setting so they can orient themselves. The VWS also allows plenty of room for action to take place, or for multiple subjects to appear on screen.
Wide Shot (WS)
In the wide shot, the subject takes up the full frame. In this case, the girl's feet are almost at the bottom of frame, and her head is almost at the top. Obviously the subject doesn't take up the whole width and height of the frame, since this is as close as we can get without losing any part of her. The small amount of room above and below the subject can be thought of as safety room — you don't want to be cutting the top of the head off. It would also look uncomfortable if her feet and head were exactly at the top and bottom of frame.
As with most shot types, the wide shot means different things to different people. However the wide shot seems to suffer more from varying interpretations than other types. Many people take the WS to mean something much wider than our example, i.e. what we would call a very wide shot.
Mid Shot (MS)
The mid shot shows some part of the subject in more detail, whilst still showing enough for the audience to feel as if they were looking at the whole subject. In fact, this is an approximation of how you would see a person "in the flesh" if you were having a casual conversation. You wouldn't be paying any attention to their lower body, so that part of the picture is unnecessary.
The MS is appropriate when the subject is speaking without too much emotion or intense concentration. It also works well when the intent is to deliver information, which is why it is frequently used by television news presenters. You will often see a story begin with a MS of the reporter (providing information), followed by closer shots of interview subjects (providing reactions and emotion).
As well as being a comfortable, emotionally neutral shot, the mid shot allows room for hand gestures and a bit of movement.

Medium Close Up (MCU)

The medium close-up is half way between a mid shot and a close up. This shot shows the face more clearly, without getting uncomfortably close.


Close Up (CU)
In the close-up shot, a certain feature or part of the subject takes up most of the frame. A close up of a person usually means a close up of their face (unless specified otherwise).
Close-ups are obviously useful for showing detail and can also be used as a cut-in.
A close-up of a person emphasizes their emotional state. Whereas a mid-shot or wide-shot is more appropriate for delivering facts and general information, a close-up exaggerates facial expressions which convey emotion. The viewer is drawn into the subject's personal space and shares their feelings.

Extreme Close Up (ECU)
The ECU gets right in and shows extreme detail.
You would normally need a specific reason to get this close. It is too close to show general reactions or emotion except in very dramatic scenes.


Cutaway (CA)
A cutaway is a shot that's usually of something other than the current action. It could be a different subject (e.g. this cat when the main subject is its owner), a close up of a different part of the subject (e.g. the subject's hands), or just about anything else.
The cutaway is used as a "buffer" between shots (to help the editing process), or to add interest/information.

Cut-In (CI)

Like a cutaway, but specifically refers to showing some part of the subject in detail.
Can be used purely as an edit point, or to emphasize emotion etc. For example, hand movements can show enthusiasm, agitation, nervousness, etc.

Two Shot
There are a few variations on this one, but the basic idea is to have a comfortable shot of two people. Often used in interviews, or when two presenters are hosting a show.
A "One-Shot" could be a mid-shot of either of these subjects. A "Three-Shot", unsurprisingly, contains three people.
Two-shots are good for establishing a relationship between subjects. If you see two sports presenters standing side by side facing the camera, you get the idea that these people are going to be the show's co-hosts. As they have equal prominence in the frame, the implication is that they will provide equal input.
A two-shot could also involve movement or action. It is a good way to follow the interaction between two people without getting distracted by their surroundings.

Over the shoulder Shot (OSS)
Looking from behind a person at the subject, cutting off the frame just behind the ear. The person facing the subject should occupy about 1/3 of the frame.
This shot helps to establish the positions of each person, and get the feel of looking at one person from the other's point of view.
A variation of this shot can be a bit wider and include the shoulder of the person facing the subject.

Noddy Shot
Common in interviews, this is a shot of the person listening and reacting to the subject. In fact, when shooting interviews with one camera, the usual routine is to shoot the subject (using OSS and one-shots) for the entire interview, then shoot some noddies of the interviewer once the interview is finished. The noddies are edited into the interview later.


Point of View Shot (POV)
Shows a view from the subject's perspective. This shot is usually edited in such a way that it is obvious who’s POV it is.




Weather Shot
The subject is the fine day. The sky takes up at least 2/3 of the frame. This type of shot is common in television programs where the weather is of particular interest, e.g. Sports shows.
Although the usual purpose of this shot is to show the weather, it is also useful as an establishing shot, for setting the general mood or for overlaying graphics.

CAMERA MOVEMENTS

Crab                       - A less-common term for tracking or trucking.

The term crabbing shot is a less-common version of tracking, trucking and/or dollying. These terms are more or less interchangeable, although dollying tends to mean in-and-out movement whereas the others tend to mean side-to-side movement at a constant distance from the action.

Dolly                     - The camera is mounted on a cart which travels along tracks for a very smooth movement. Also
                                known as a tracking shot or trucking shot.

A dolly is a cart which travels along tracks. The camera is mounted on the dolly and records the shot as it moves. Dolly shots have a number of applications and can provide very dramatic footage.

In many circles a dolly shot is also known as a tracking shot or trucking shot. However some professionals prefer the more rigid terminology which defines dolly as in-and-out movement (i.e. closer/further away from the subject), while tracking means side-to-side movement.
Most dollies have a lever to allow for vertical movement as well (known as a pedestal move). In some cases a crane is mounted on the dolly for additional height and flexibility. A shot which moves vertically while simultaneously tracking is called a compound shot.
Some dollies can also operate without tracks. This provides the greatest degree of movement, assuming of course that a suitable surface is available. Special dollies are available for location work, and are designed to work with common constraints such as doorway width.
Dollies are operated by a dolly grip. In the world of big-budget movie making, good dolly grips command a lot of respect and earning power.
The venerable dolly faced serious competition when the Steadicam was invented. Most shots previously only possible with a dolly could now be done with the more versatile Steadicam. However dollies are still preferred for many shots, especially those that require a high degree of precision.

Dolly Zoom         - A technique in which the camera moves closer or further from the subject while
                               simultaneously adjusting the zoom angle to keep the subject the same size in the frame.

A dolly zoom is a cinematic technique in which the camera moves closer or further from the subject while simultaneously adjusting the zoom angle to keep the subject the same size in the frame. The effect is that the subject appears stationary while the background size changes (this is called perspective distortion).

In the first example pictured, the camera is positioned close to the subject and the lens is zoomed out. In the second shot, the camera is several meters further back and the lens is zoomed in.

-The Effect

Dolly zooms create an unnatural effect — this is something your eyes would never normally see. Many people comment on the shot after seeing it for the first time, e.g. "That was weird" or "What just happened there?".

The exact effect depends on the direction of camera movement. If the camera moves closer, the background seems to grow and become dominant. If the camera moves further away, the foreground subject is emphasized and becomes dominant.

The effect is quite emotional and is often used to convey sudden realization, reaction to a dramatic event, etc.

-History

Invention of the dolly zoom is credited to cameraman Irmin Roberts. The technique was made famous by Alfred Hitchcock (Vertigo being the best-known example), and was used by Steven Spielberg in Jaws and ET. Many other directors have used the technique, which brings us to an important warning...

-Warning

The dolly zoom is often over-used by junior directors. Many film critics see it as a cliché, so be very careful before you use this technique.

-Other Terminology

The dolly zoom is also known as:

·   Hitchcock zoom

·   Vertigo zoom or vertigo effect

·   Jaws shot

·   Trombone shot

·   Zolly or zido

·   Telescoping

·   Contra-zoom

·   Reverse tracking

·   Zoom in/dolly out (or vice versa

Follow                 - The camera physically follows the subject at a more or less constant distance.

The Follow shot is fairly self-explanatory. It simply means that the camera follows the subject ot action. The following distance is usually kept more or less constant.
The movement can be achieved by dollying or tracking, although in many cases a Steadicam is the most practical option. Hand-held follow-shots are quite achievable in many situations but are not generally suited to feature film cinematography.

Pan                        - Horizontal movement (left and right)

A pan is a horizontal camera movement in which the camera moves left and right about a central axis. This is a swiveling movement, i.e. mounted in a fixed location on a tripod or shoulder, rather than a dolly-like movement in which the entire mounting system moves.
To create a smooth pan it's a good idea to practice the movement first. If you need to move or stretch your body during the move, it helps to position yourself so you end up in the more comfortable position. In other words you should become more comfortable as the move progresses rather than less comfortable.

Pedestal              - Moving the camera position vertically with respect to the subject.

A pedestal shot means moving the camera vertically with respect to the subject. This is often referred to as "pedding" the camera up or down.
The term comes from the type of camera support known as a pedestal (pictured right). Pedestals are used in studio settings and provide a great deal of flexibility as well as very smooth movement. Unlike standard tripods, pedestals have the ability to move the camera in any direction (left, right, up, down).
Note that a pedestal move is different to a camera tilt, which means the camera is in the same position but tilts the angle of view up and down. In a ped movement, the whole camera is moving, not just the angle of view.
In reality, like most camera moves, the pedestal move is often a combination of moves. For example, pedding while simultaneously panning and/or tilting.

Tilt                         - Vertical movement of the camera angle, i.e. pointing the camera up and down (as opposed to
                               moving the whole camera up and down).

A tilt is a vertical camera movement in which the camera points up or down from a stationary location. For example, if you mount a camera on your shoulder and nod it up and down, you are tilting the camera.
Tilting is less common than panning because that's the way human’s work — we look left and right more often than we look up and down.
The tilt should not be confused with the Dutch Tilt which means a deliberately slanted camera angle.
A variation of the tilt is the pedestal shot, in which the whole camera moves up or down.
Track                     - Roughly synonymous with the dolly shot, but often defined more specifically as movement
                               which stays a constant distance from the action, especially side-to-side movement.
The term tracking shot is widely considered to be synonymous with dolly shot; that is, a shot in which the camera is mounted on a cart which travels along tracks.
However there are a few variations of both definitions. Tracking is often more narrowly defined as movement parallel to the action, or at least at a constant distance (e.g. the camera which travels alongside the race track in track & field events). Dollying is often defined as moving closer to or further away from the action.
Some definitions specify that tracking shots use physical tracks, others consider tracking to include hand-held walking shots, Steadicam shots, etc.
Other terms for the tracking shot include trucking shot and crabbing shot.

Truck                     - Another term for tracking or dollying.
Trucking is basically the same as tracking or dollying although it means slightly different things to different people; it generally refers to side-to-side camera movement with respect to the action.
The term trucking is not uncommon but is less widely-used than dollying or tracking. Yet another equivalent term is crabbing.
Zoom                    - Technically this isn't a camera move, but a change in the lens focal length with gives the
                                illusion of moving the camera closer or further away.
A zoom is technically not a camera move as it does not require the camera itself to move at all. Zooming means altering the focal length of the lens to give the illusion of moving closer to or further away from the action.
The effect is not quite the same though. Zooming is effectively magnifying a part of the image, while moving the camera creates a difference in perspective — background objects appear to change in relation to foreground objects. This is sometimes used for creative effect in the dolly zoom.
Zooming is an easy-to-use but hard-to-get-right feature of most cameras. It is arguably the most misused of all camera functions. See our camera zoom tutorial for more information.


LIGHTING TERMINOLOGY

Common Lighting Terminology

Ambient Light   - The light already present in a scene, before any additional lighting is added.

Ambient light means the light that is already present in a scene, before any additional lighting is added. It usually refers to natural light, either outdoors or coming through windows etc. It can also mean artificial lights such as normal room lights.
Ambient light can be the photographer's friend and/or enemy. Clearly ambient light is important in photography and video work, as most shots rely largely or wholly on ambient lighting.
Unfortunately ambient light can be a real nuisance if it conflicts with what the photographer wants to achieve. For example, ambient light may be the wrong color temperature, intensity or direction for the desired effect. In this case the photographer may choose to block out the ambient light completely and replace it with artificial light. Of course this isn't always practical and sometime compromises must be made.
On the other hand, many of history's greatest photographs and film shots have relied on interesting ambient light. Unusual lighting can turn an otherwise ordinary shot into something very powerful.

Incident Light    - Light seen directly from a light source (lamp, sun, etc).

Reflected Light - Light seen after having bounced off a surface.

Color Temperature - A standard of measuring the characteristics of light, measured in Kelvin’s.

Contrast Ratio   - The difference in brightness between the brightest white and the darkest black within an image. Contrast Ratio is a measurement of the difference in brightness between the whitest white and the darkest black within an image. A ratio of 300:1 means the brightest point in the image is 300 times as bright as the darkest point. A higher contrast ratio therefore means a larger difference in brightness.

Key Light             - The main light on the subject, providing most of the illumination and contrast.

Fill Light               - A light placed to the side of the subject to fill out shadows and balance the key light.

Back Light             - A light placed at the rear of a subject to light from behind.

Hard Light           - Light directly from a source such as the sun, traveling undisturbed onto the subject being lit.

Soft Light             - Light this appears to “wrap around” the subject to some degree. Produces less shadows or
                                softer shadows.

Spot                       - A controlled, narrowly-focused beam of light.

Flood                    - A broad beam of light, less directional and intense than a spot.

Tungsten             - Light from an ordinary light bulb containing a thin coiled tungsten wire that becomes
                                incandescent (emits light) when an electric current is passed along it. Tungsten color
                                temperature is around 2800K to 3400K.

Halogen               - Type of lamp in which a tungsten filament is sealed in a clear capsule filled with a halogen gas.
                                 Fresnel A light which has a lens with raised circular ridges on its outer surface. The Fresnel
                                 lens is used to focus the light beam.

 Incandescent    - Incandescent lamps produce heat by heating a wire filament until it glows. The glow is caused
                                by the filament's resistance to the current and is called incandescence.

TYPES OF LIGHTING

These are some common types of light you'll often hear about in film, video and photography. Note that these definitions are not always rigid and some people may interpret them a little differently.
Blonde                             - 1000-2000w, used as a key flood light for large areas.
 A blonde light is basically a bigger version of a redhead. Power rating can be 1000 to 2000 watts, although the term generally refers to a 2000w open-face unit.
These are powerful lights, useful as key floodlights for lighting large areas. The example pictured here is an Ianiro 2Kw blonde.

Note: The term "blonde" is often used loosely — there is no rigid definition.


RedHead                        - 650-1000w, used as a key flood light for large areas.
 Red Head is a term used to describe general-purpose lights common in visual media work. Power rating is around 650-1000w, typically 800w.
Red heads can be used as a key flood light for large areas, but are also useful as fill and backlights.
The example pictured here is an Arrilite 800w open-face focusing tungsten floodlight. The beam is focused using the yellow control at the back — this adjusts the reflector rather than the lamp, which should give the lamp a longer life because it is not being moved.
Note: The term "redhead" is often used loosely — there is no rigid definition.

PeperLight                      - 100-1000w, small light used as a more focused key or fill light.
 Pepper lights are small lights, around 100 - 1000w (200w is common). They can be used as key or fill lights in small areas, or to light a certain feature, create lighting contrast and effects, etc.
Pepper lights can be also be used to accent a person's eyes.
HMI                                   - A high-quality type of light which uses an arc lamp instead of filament bulb.

 HMI (Hydrargyrum Medium-Arc Iodide) is a type of light which uses an arc lamp instead of an incandescent bulb to produce light.

HMI lights are high-quality and correspondingly expensive. They are popular with film and television production companies but their price puts them out of reach of those with modest budgets.

HMI lights require ballast, an electronic (or magnetic) device which provides the ignition pulse and regulates the arc.

 Advantages of HMI lights include:

• Efficiency: 2 to 5 times as efficient as incandescent. This means they use less power and run cooler.
• Color temperature: HMIs run at around 5600K, daylight temperature. This makes daylight shooting easier, as well as eliminating loss of light from gels (which are necessary with incandescent).
• Light Quality: Directors of photography speak highly of the light produced by HMIs.

Halogen Work Lamb      - 150-500w, used as a key flood light for lighting large areas. This is a low-budget
                 lighting solution.

 Halogen work lamps are designed for workplaces and similar situations where a flexible means of providing strong lighting is required, e.g. builders, mechanics, etc. Work lamps come in various sizes and configurations, from portable units with handles to stand-mounted multi-head versions. Power rating is generally 150w to 500w.
Halogen work lamps are sold by trade suppliers and DIY stores.
Work lamps can be a cheap option for video lighting. They are useful as a key flood light for lighting fairly large areas.
 You must remember though, that these lamps are not specifically designed for video or photography. They are not ideal and usually require a diffusion gel for the best effect. The protective grills may also interfere with the light (you may be able to remove them).
You might also want to consider waterproof work lamps for extra safety, especially if you are working outdoors.
Chinese Lanterns             - A low-cost light, useful in some situations.
 A Chinese lantern is a paper ball (or cylinder, cube, etc) with a light bulb in the middle. They are very cheap to buy and use a standard household light bulb.
For video and photographic work, Chinese lanterns are obviously limited by the small amount of wattage. However they do create a nice light that can be useful for close-up shots. In a wider setting, multiple lanterns can be used for effect.
Being made of paper, Chinese lanterns are potentially dangerous. They can catch fire so be careful. For storage they can be collapsed to a disk the same diameter as the expanded sphere.



Other Lights                       - Domestic light bulbs can be used at a pinch, ideally as a secondary light such as fill or
                                              backlight. Many video cameras have built-in lights or the ability to mount a light —
                                              these are useful in emergencies but provide poor quality lighting.


INSTRUMENTS/HOUSING

Fresnel                                 - A light which has a lens with raised circular ridges on its outer surface which are used
                                 to focus the light beam.
A Fresnel lens (pronounced fra-NELL) is a special type of lens with raised circular ridges on its outer surface. The illustration on the left shows a cross-section of a Fresnel lens. Fresnel lenses are much thinner than conventional lenses, so they are lighter and lose less light through absorption.
Lights with Fresnel lenses are often referred to simply as Fresnel’s.
The light from a Fresnel can be made to spread out (flood) or concentrate into a tight beam (spot) by adjusting the distance between the lamp and the lens.
 The Fresnel lens was invented by Augustin-Jean Fresnel in 1821 for use in lighthouses. Modern uses include overhead projectors, projection televisions and solar energy systems.

LIGHTING EQUIPEMENT
Some common types of equipment used in video and photography lighting.

18% Gray Card                   - A gray-colored card which reflects 18% of the light which falls upon it. Used as a
                 reference to calibrate light meters and set exposure.

An 18 Percent Gray Card is a simple gray-colored card which uniformly reflects 18% of the light which falls upon it. Gray cards can be used as a reference to set the camera exposure or to calibrate a light meter (light meters are used to determine which exposure setting is required to produce a medium gray tone).
Gray cards are usually made from coated cardboard or polystyrene and come with a protective cover. They are an inexpensive and useful addition to the photographers' kit.
Ballast                                  - A device used to control the electrical current in a light.
Ballast is an electrical device used to control the current in an electrical circuit. Lighting ballast controls the start-up and regulation of fluorescent and high intensity discharge (HID) lamps.
Ballast is necessary for fluorescent and HID lamps because they have a negative resistance, which means if they are connected to a constant voltage source they will continue to draw more current until something melts down. The ballast controls the current and keeps everything working correctly.
Ballasts come in many varieties and complexities, from a simple resister to computer-controlled units.

Lighting Console              - Hardware and software systems which control lighting. Operated by the lighting
                                              technician, consoles coordinate lighting displays on stages, studios, etc.
Lighting consoles are systems which control lighting - much as a sound mixer controls audio and a vision switcher controls video. Consoles are typically a combination of hardware and software.
Operated by a lighting technician, consoles are used in a wide range of applications including stage, studio, film set, etc.
Modern consoles include options for automating certain tasks and effects. Complex productions rely heavily on such automation.
Light Meter                        - A tool used to measure light and indicate the ideal exposure setting. Also known as an
                                              exposure meter.
A light meter, also known as an exposure meter, is a tool used to measure light levels. Light meters are commonly used in photography, motion film and video to help determine the ideal exposure setting.
Many cameras have built-in light meters and this function is often carried out automatically. However serious professionals still regularly take manual readings.


Reflector Board                                - A specially-designed reflective surface used to act as a secondary light source. The
                                              board is lightweight and flexible, and is normally folded up for transport in a small
                                              carry-case.

Sometimes referred to as a "fleck board", this is a specially-designed reflective surface which is usually used to act as a secondary light source. It is particularly useful as a fill light when working in strong sunlight.

Reflector boards come in white, silver or gold surfaces. Many reflectors have a different type of surface on each side, giving you two lighting options. Gold surfaces provide a warmer look than silver or white.

If you don't have a reflector board you can improvise. Almost any suitably-sized object with a reflective surface will do. Some examples include:

• Windscreen sunshades for automobiles
• Polystyrene sheets
• Tin foil on cardboard (try both sides of the foil for different effects)
• Whiteboard

Gels                                       - Materials which are placed in front of a light source to alter its characteristics, e.g.
              color temperature or dispersion
In the context of lighting, diffusion means to spread the light beam out and make it more random.

When you have a single source of light like the sun, the resulting light is very directional and will create shadows where the light does not fall. On an overcast day, water particles in the clouds diffuse the sunlight and make it appear to be coming from the whole sky (reducing
shadows in the process).
Video lights tend to create directional light. In some cases this is desirable but sometimes this type of light can be too harsh. In particular, you don't usually want strong shadows on a person's face.
One way to mitigate this problem is to use some sort of diffuser. This usually comes in the form of a gel, filter or piece of material which is placed in front of the light. Professional light fixtures have special holders or clips on the barn doors to attach gels and filters. Wooden clothes pegs can also be used.

Spectrometer                    - A professional-level instrument which measures the spectrum of light. Technically
                                              speaking, a spectrometer analyses the electromagnetic spectrum and measures the
                                              intensity of radiation as a function of wavelength.
Stands & Clamps              - Systems used to support lights and hold them in the correct position.
In the context of lighting equipment, the term Lighting Support refers to the range of systems used to support lights and hold them in the correct position. This usually means light stands and clamps. Clamps and other accessories are sometimes referred to as grip gear.
Like microphone stands, most lighting stands and clamps use a standard system of fittings.
On simple light stands like the ones pictured, the light slides down onto the fitting and screws tight.

THE STANDARD 3 POINT LIGHTING TECHNIQUE

The Three Point Lighting Technique is a standard method used in visual media such as video, film, still photography and computer-generated imagery. It is a simple but versatile system which forms the basis of most lighting. Once you understand three point lighting you are well on the way to understanding all lighting.

The technique uses three lights called the key light, fill light and back light. Naturally you will need three lights to utilize the technique fully, but the principles are still important even if you only use one or two lights. As a rule:

• If you only have one light, it becomes the key.
• If you have 2 lights, one is the key and the other is either the fill or the backlight.

Key Light

This is the main light. It is usually the strongest and has the most influence on the look of the scene. It is placed to one side of the camera/subject so that this side is well lit and the other side has some shadow.

Fill Light

This is the secondary light and is placed on the opposite side of the key light. It is used to fill the shadows created by the key. The fill will usually be softer and less bright than the key. To achieve this, you could move the light further away or use some spun. You might also want to set the fill light to more of a flood than the key.

Back Light

The back light is placed behind the subject and lights it from the rear. Rather than providing direct lighting (like the key and fill), its purpose is to provide definition and subtle highlights around the subject's outlines. This helps separate the subject from the background and provide a three-dimensional look.

Note: If you have a fourth light, you could use it to light the background of the entire scene.

LIGHTING FOR VIDEO & TELEVISION

Light Sources

All video uses some sort of lighting, whether it be natural light (from the sun) or artificial lights. The goal of video lighting is to choose the best source(s) to achieve your goals.

First and foremost you need enough light. You must ensure that your camera is able to record an acceptable picture in the conditions. With modern cameras this is seldom a problem except in very low light or strong contrast.
Assuming you have enough light, you must then consider the quality of the light and how the various light sources combine to produce the image.
If you have clashing light sources (e.g. artificial interior lights with sunlight coming through the windows), you may find the colors in your image appear unnatural. It's best to control the light sources yourself if possible (e.g. turn off the lights or close the curtains).
When moving between locations, think about what light source you are using. If you move from an outside setting to an inside one with artificial lights, the amount of light may seem the same but the color temperature will change according to the type of lights. In this case you need to white balance your camera for the new light source

Contrast Ratio

Contrast ratio is the difference in brightness between the brightest and darkest parts of the picture. Video does not cope with extreme contrast as well as film, and nowhere near as well as the human eye. The result of over-contrast is that some parts of the picture will be too bright or too dark to see any detail. For this reason you need to ensure that there is not too much contrast in your shot. See Camera Contrast Ratio for more details.

Camera-Mounted Lights

The camera-mounted light is an easy, versatile solution used by amateurs and professionals alike. Typically the light will draw power from the camera battery, although a separate power supply can be used. Be aware that lights which draw power from the camera battery will significantly shorten the battery's charge time.

This type of lighting does not create pleasing effects. it is a "blunt instrument" approach which is really only designed to illuminate the scene enough to allow normal camera operations. However it is a simple, practical solution.

Night-Mode Video Shooting

Some cameras offer a special "night vision" option which allows you to shoot with virtually no light. This mode uses infrared light instead of normal visible light.

This is useful in extreme circumstances when you have no other option. Unfortunately the results tend to be poor-quality monochrome green.

Of course, you can use this mode for a special effect if it suits the content.

LIGHTING WITH BACKGROUND WINDOWS

Shooting pictures indoors with external windows is a common issue for photographers and video makers. The large difference in light levels between the room and the outside view make finding the correct exposure a challenge. Video is particularly susceptible to this problem due to its relatively low contrast ratio.
If you can't avoid having the window in shot, in most cases the only thing you can do is use the manual iris to set your exposure correctly for the subjects in the room. This means that the window will be over-exposed but that's a necessary compromise. If you wish to show the outside view, expose the iris for the window (which will make the room dark).
If you have time and resources available, there are two things you can do to help even out the lighting so it's possible to capture both areas effectively:

1. Add more light to the room
2. Reduce the light from the window

Increase the Lighting in the Room

Any extra light you can shine on the subject will decrease the contrast ratio between them and the window.
In some cases switching on the standard room lighting can help, although this often introduces new problems such as clashing color temperatures and harsh downward shadows. It’s possible that a reflector board could be useful.

Reduce the Light from the Window

You can reduce the amount of light coming through the window by placing some sort of filter over it.

In the example pictured here, black scrim (a fine mesh material) is taped to the window. You can see that the background is much more manageable through the scrim.

If the entire window needs to be in shot you'll need to be careful and discreet with the scrim/filter. It can be difficult getting exactly the right fit. If only part of the window is in shot it's a lot easier.

Filters can cause unwanted side effects such as ripple and the moiré effect. Being further away from the window helps.

LIGHTING EFFECTS

Cold / Warm

You can add to the feeling of coldness or warmth by using additional filters or doubling up on gels. Very blue means very cold, very red/orange means very hot.

Moonlight (or any night-time light)

This is an old standard technique which has become something of a cliché. You can make daytime seem like night by lowering the exposure slightly and adding a blue filter to the camera. However a convincing illusion may require more effort than this — you don't want any daytime giveaways such as birds flying through shot. You also need to think about any other lighting which should appear in shot, such as house or street lights.

Firelight

To light a person's face as if they were looking at a fire, try this: Point a redhead with orange gel away from the subject at a large reflector which reflects the light back at the subject. Shake the reflector to simulate firelight (remember to add sound effects as well).

Watching TV

To light a person's face as if they were watching TV, shine a blue light at the subject and wave a piece of cloth or paper in front of the light to simulate flickering.

DIY LIGHTINING KIT

Professional lighting kits for video and photography are very expensive. Fortunately for the budget-impaired enthusiast, it is possible to put together a perfectly adequate lighting kit for less than $US100.
A good beginner's lighting kit should include:

• Three (or more) lights with stands
• Reflector board(s)
• Power cables, extension leads and a multi-box.

The Lights

The standard budget light is the halogen work lamp which can be found at any hardware store or purchased at amazon.com for as little as $US10. These come with or without a stand and range from around 150W to 500W.
The stands-less units have a small handle and can be rested on any solid surface such as a table or the floor. This is not ideal for your main lights but it can be useful for fill lighting, backgrounds, etc. In any case these units are so cheap that it can't hurt to buy a couple.
Lights with stands are more versatile and you should have at least one of these (preferably two or three). Try to find a stand which goes up to around 2 meters (the height of a tall person).
Some lights (like the W12665 unit pictured) can be used with or without the stand, making them even more versatile.
One drawback of these cheap lights is that the color of the light is quite yellow. As long as you white-balance your camera this isn't a huge issue, but if you want the best quality lighting you can try one of these solutions:

1. Purchase a 32K white bulb (ask your hardware supplier).
2. Place a colored gel in front of the light to correct the color.

Speaking of gels, the other big drawback of these lights is that there is no built-in system for mounting accessories like gels and diffusers. You can improvise by creating a wire holder or separate stand for accessories.
You will also find that you can't alter the spread of these lights, i.e. from floodlight to spotlight. This is not a big concern for most people but if you do need this functionality you might need to consider a professional video lighting kit.

Reflectors

Professional reflector boards are used to add or control light in a scene. You can make your own from just about any large reflective object, although the exact color and reflectivity will obviously affect your lighting. Common suggestions for an improvised reflector include:

• Windshield sunshade (pictured)
• Sheet of foam core
• Polystyrene sheet
• Stiff cardboard, or tin foil on cardboard (try both sides of the foil for different effects)
• Whiteboard
• Survival blanket (gold on one side and silver on the other)

Hobby shops have a lot of items which may be of interest. Online auction sites are also worth checking as reflectors can often be found fairly cheap there.

Power

You will need a few power extension cables of varying lengths, plus one or more multi-boxes with built-in trip switches. It helps to have a separate carry case for power cables.

Safety

• Lights get very hot! Seriously, you can burn yourself badly or set fire to things.
• Lights can draw a lot of current so be careful not to overload power sources.
• If you're working outside, use an isolating transformer on your power.

LIGHTING SAFETY TIPS

Keep bystanders away from lights — they are notorious for knocking them over.

Always be extremely careful with the heat created by lights. The barn doors can burn your fingers. Wait until lights cool down before touching or moving them.
Don't handle bulbs with your fingers — use a piece of cloth or something else.
Only use material for gels which is specifically designed for lighting. Don't use paper, tracing paper, baking paper, plastic, etc. Never attach anything to a light which isn't designed for the application.
Make sure stands are stable and loose cables are taped to the ground.
Lights are power-hungry — don't overload sockets. Never plug more than 2Kw of lighting into a domestic power point.
Make sure all lights have adequate ventilation and never cover them.

TIPS FOR LIGHTING PEOPLE

Harsh light is not flattering; soft light creates a warmer feel.
Avoid strong nose shadows or any strong contrast on the face. Place the key light on the same side as the camera and fill the shadows.
Avoid reflections from glasses. You may need to adjust the position of the subject and/or lights to do this.
Beware bald heads — they can reflect a lot of light and appear over-exposed. Try weakening or softening the light with a diffusion gel.
Soft light and diffusion helps reduce the appearance of wrinkles.

GENERAL LIGHTING TIPS

You can use a frosted shower curtain to create diffusion. Hang the curtain in front of the light(s) but be careful — the curtain will melt if you get too close!
Use a Chinese lantern for a nice soft close-up light.